ABSTRACT
This article aims to analyse how the press has depicted Francisco Sá Carneiro, founder of the Social Democratic Party, regarding his role in the construction of Portuguese democracy. Debates on the Portuguese transition to democracy focus almost invariably on its revolutionary phase and on the relative importance of its actors and agents of change. Nonetheless, little attention has been paid to the role of civilian leaders during or after the 74-75 Revolution. In addition, the impact of the media on the historical memory of the Portuguese transition remains an underexplored research topic. Considering the importance of the media in shaping public opinion and in the process of building the historical memory, we will undertake a qualitative analysis of piece of news published on Sá Carneiro and his role in Portuguese democratization. Our research will focus on Portuguese and Spanish largest newspapers in order to perceive if Sá Carneiro’s memory also changed abroad. This article argues that the press hasn’t paid much attention to Sá Carneiro’s role in the democratisation process, echoing mythologized visions of the centrist leader.
Keywords: Francisco Sá Carneiro; history of Iberian transitions; party leaders; image abroad; memory of the Portuguese transition.
RESUMEN
Este artículo tiene como objetivo identificar cómo la prensa ha retratado Francisco Sá Carneiro, fundador del Partido Socialdemócrata, en lo que respecta a su papel en la construcción de la democracia portuguesa. Los debates sobre la transición portuguesa a la democracia se centran casi invariablemente en su fase revolucionaria y en la importancia relativa de sus actores y agentes de cambio. Sin embargo, se ha prestado poca atención al papel de los líderes civiles durante o después de la revolución del 74-75. Además, el impacto de los medios de comunicación en la memoria histórica de la transición portuguesa sigue siendo un área de investigación poco explorada. Considerando la importancia de los medios de comunicación en la formación de la opinión pública y en el proceso de construcción de la memoria histórica, realizaremos un análisis cualitativo de los principales artículos publicados sobre Sá Carneiro y sobre su papel en la democratización portuguesa. Nuestra investigación se centra en los periódicos de mayor circulación en Portugal y España para percibir si la memoria de Sá Carneiro también evolucionó en el extranjero. Este artículo sostiene que la prensa ha dedicado poca atención al papel de Sá Carneiro en la construcción de la democracia portuguesa, haciéndose eco de visiones mitificadas del líder centrista.
Palabras clave: Francisco Sá Carneiro; historia de las transiciones ibéricas; líderes partidarios; imagen exterior; memoria de la transición portuguesa.
4 December 1980: the small Cessna in which the Prime Minister of Portugal, Francisco Sá Carneiro, was travelling crashed shortly after taking off from Lisbon Airport, causing the instant death of all its occupants. The following day, the Portuguese press extensively covered the events echoing the widespread public grief and the deep consternation of a country then living the final moments of a fierce presidential election campaign. On the other side of the border, Spanish reporters also devoted ample attention to the affair putting it into context:
Faced with the re-election claims of President Ramalho Eanes, circumstantially turned into the candidate of the Portuguese socialist and communist left and in favour of maintaining some of the bases of the socializing Constitution of 1976, the forces gathered around the governing coalition have been orphaned of a true leader and one of the most effective and insightful politicians in Western Europe.
Hated, but respected, by his political opponents and admired, but feared, among his own supporters, the Portuguese right would probably not have dreamed in the days following the April 1974 military coup of finding a better lawyer than this man, who, even as a social democrat, has brought her to the gates of power only six years after losing it to a handful of inexperienced captains[2].
The perception of Sá Carneiro as the founder of the Portuguese Right and as a key builder of the Portuguese democracy was highlighted either by progressive newspapers as El Pais or the conservative one as La Vanguardia. The latter went further in its assessments stating that Sá Carneiro’s main virtue consisted in freeing Portugal from the “communist threat”[3]. On both sides of the border, the words of Spanish President Adolfo Suárez echoed, craving that the Portuguese people would pursue “the path of democratic consolidation, despite the death of one of the men who have contributed the most in forging a democratic and free Portugal”[4].
The examples presented allow us to glimpse how the early and tragic disappearance of the scene of Sá Carneiro (1934-1980) quickly gave birth to an almost mythical hero, presented as an outstanding political leader and, above all, as one of the “founders” of the Portuguese democratic regime.
According to Zuquete (2011): 304, “a true ‘cult of Sá Carneiro’ has been established in the Social Democratic Party”, a phenomenon that is still to be studied.
With this paper, we do not aspire to analyse the political profile or performance
of Francisco Sá Carneiro —the historical leader of the Popular Democratic Party (PPD,
Partido Popular Democrático) and founder of the center-right coalition Democratic
Alliance (AD)—, his legacy, or even the role that has been ascribed to him by history[5]. Our purpose is more modest: to confirm what narrative and image of Sá Carneiro was
built by the press in what concerns his role in Portuguese democratisation. Aware
that this is a modest contribution, we have in mind a future broader study on the
role of media in the construction of historical memory of Portuguese democratic transition
as suggested by the seminal research of Santana-Pereira (
Aiming to evaluate how Sá Carneiro has been depicted in the press, we will take the following question as a starting point: What narrative did the press construct on the centrist leader in what concerns his role in Portuguese transition to democracy? Our starting hypothesis is the idea that after his tragic death, the press devoted little attention analysing his political performance, echoing mythologized visions of the centrist leader.
A broad survey of the articles produced in the last 40 years (1980-2020) was conducted, with particular emphasis on key dates such as the anniversaries of his death (4 December 1980), but also covering other significant moments. Press sources selection obeyed to quality criterion but also took into consideration the necessary plurality of political-ideological orientations.
Although our study focused on national broadsheets (prioritising press titles such as Diário de Notícias, Expresso, Público), the field of analysis was expanded through a review of articles published in three Spanish newspapers —La Vanguardia, El País and ABC— in order to perceive how Sá Carneiro’s image and memory evolved abroad, taking Spain as a case study.
In spite of the large differences in the Iberian transitions to democracy and the
substantially diverse role played by Centrism in both processes There is abundant literature on the topic. See for example, Pollack y Taylor ( “La muerte del primer ministro portugués”, El País, 4-12-1980.
O Dia, 5-12-1980.
Portugal and Spain have been fertile objects of study, namely in a comparative perspective,
due to their political, cultural, and even historical similarities
With a common past of long dictatorships, Portugal and Spain made their transition
to democracy in parallel. Fairly close in temporal and spatial terms, as well as in
outcome, Iberian transitions have significant differences both on the way they started
and how they evolved. If the role played by Centrism in Spanish transition seem relatively
accepted, and, in recent years, Adolfo Suárez has become one of the founding myths
of Spanish democracy, the same cannot be said in relation to AD and Sá Carneiro. Zuquete’s
2011 article, exploring the impact of the leadership of Francisco Sá Carneiro, is
one of the rare exceptions in this panorama Zúquete (
The article proceeds as follows. The next two sections provide some contextual and conceptual data. Firstly, shortly presenting media coverage of the celebrations of the 25th of April in the last four decades and some key literature on Media-History-Memory relations in order to framework the importance of studying how Sá Carneiro was been disputed by the press. Secondly, we focus on the political career of Sá Carneiro, with particular emphasis on the 1974-1975 revolution and on democratic consolidation. Sections four and five are devoted to our case study, presenting the press analysis work carried out. The final section summarises the results and discusses its possible implications on a broader debate on media narrative and its role in the construction of public memory.
Historical events are not usually celebrated with particular enthusiasm in Portugal, but the 25 April Revolution is an exception. Year in year out, newspapers, radio and television stations, and, more recently, digital media, devote it extensive attention, either through investigative reports, interviews, opinion columns or through the news coverage of the official and popular ceremonies that celebrate the date. In addition to the articles produced by journalists, the use of historians and political scientists is also common. Similarly, it is common that press organs invest in special initiatives as specialized supplements, books, music or CD/DVD’s collections.
A previous research, focused on four national newspapers (Público, Diário de Notícias, Correio da Manhã e Expresso) and on key dates of the Carnation Revolution (10th, 20th, 30th and 40th anniversaries) The outcomes of that research were given at ECREA 7th European Communication Conference,
Lugano, 1 November 2018 and at IAMCR 2019 Conference, Madrid, 9 July 2019.
Firstly, it is worth highlighting the fact that, despite the different political, economic, and social background in which the celebrations took place, the date was always signed with particular intensity, with special emphasis on the 30th anniversary (April 2004) which enormously mobilized the media.
Secondly, the inquiry carried out, examining 1067 press articles, revealed that little
attention was paid to the revolutionary period (1974-1975). Media coverage tends
to focus strictly on 25th April events (the military operation that led to the overthrow
of the dictatorship), the achievements of the democratic regime (pieces highlighting
the economic, social and cultural changes and accomplishments) and, especially in
what concerns the 2014 celebrations, that took place in a context of severe economic
crisis, in establishing parallels between the 25 April and the present political moment.
Another specificity of the 40th anniversary of the dictatorship downfall was the public emergence of critical voices,
led by right-wing columnists, denouncing the “irresponsible hazards of the Revolution”,
its “excess” and the communist threat that overshadowed the Portuguese transition
to democracy See, for instance, “Virtudes e defeitos de Abril (1)”, Público, 24-4-2014 (article by João Miguel Tavares) or “O passado não tinha açúcar”, Diário de Notícias, 25-4-2014 (by Maria João Avillez).
Anyhow, it should be noted the silence about political parties as CDS ou PPD, and their leaders. Alongside the collective protagonist (the Portuguese people), it was above all the military players (individual and collective) that earned media attention.
In what concerns the civilian actors, the leading role is invariably attributed to the Socialist Party and Mário Soares, while the Comunist Party and its historical leader (Álvaro Cunhal) are sometimes considered responsible for the less positive aspects of the revolution years. It is almost imposible to find references to Sá Carneiro or about the importance of PPD in the construction of Portuguese democracy, a surprising fact given it was the second most voted party in the first free elections held in Portugal (25 April 1975).
Although the evocative pieces on the 25 April 1974 are, as expected, much scarcer
in Spain, the panorama is similar regarding press coverage on the role played by political
parties in Portuguese transition, even though an evocative piece of the 25th of April
celebrations of 1994 by La Vanguardia, highlighted that “at the age of twenty”, the political role of the military had “vanished” “Los portugueses miran sin pasión la revolución de los claveles”, La Vanguardia, 25-4-1994.
On his seminal study on “The impact of Television and Newspaper Consumption on Knowledge
of the Democratic Transition in Portugal”, José Santana-Pereira ( Santana-Pereira ( Ibid.: 238.
There is abundant literature on the life, thought, career and political path of Francisco
Sá Carneiro. Since the 80’s, when Freire Antunes published Sá Carneiro’s first biography
and Miguel Júdice presented The political thought of Sá Carneiro and other studies See final reference list.
As Stepan Berger notes, “History writing has never been the sole guardian of national
narratives, and today histories and historians play only a limited role in the process
of continuous reinterpretation of national past”
We have abundant studies on the role of communication as a social mediator, but the
focus upon media’s relation with history is fairly recent See, for instance, Zelizer (
It is now an acquired fact that mass media are an essential “part of the social phenomena
that brand social memories and contemporary historical narratives, by assuming a prominent
role in the creation of codes that constitute political cultures”
Baring these ideas in mind, it is our believe that the analysis of the mainstream press discourse on the Portuguese transition to democracy may allow us to ascertain their contribution to the construction of the dominant memorial discourses in the public space. Likewise this analysis allows us to observe the shape of memory, its battles and the way the homogenisation of the interpretation of the past take place. Reinvesting or denying historical relevance to facts, events or actors, the media not only seek to explain and attribute meaning to reality from a broader frame but also have impact on the symbolic constructions of the past. Living in times memory policies have been the target of great controversies, the analysis of historical memory produced by journalistic discourse stands as essential.
One should mention that, despite (or due to) the endless debates about the “model
transition” and the “forgetting pact”, in the last decade Spain witnessed the emergence
of a strong movement for the recovery of historical memory. Assuming different statements
and dimensions —in academia, in the political arena or in civil society—, this movement
was accompanied by a revitalization of historiography, not only regarding the Franco
dictatorship but also to the democratic transition. In this process, as Rafael Quirosa-Cheyrouze
emphasized, the media have played an essential role
A similar movement has no parallel in Portugal, whether on the academic, political
or media debate. Even though the dawn of the Portuguese transition to democracy was
marked by instability and uncertainty, the celebrations of the Carnation Revolution
(usually presented as a bloodless military coup d’état that overthrew the dictatorship
that ruled the country for almost half a century) apparently managed to convey the
image of a country reconciled with its past Lobo et al. (
As referred by Costa Pinto, numerous factors determine how the Portuguese perceive
their democratic transition, highlighting the rupture nature of the transition (inaugurated
with the 74-75 revolution) and its duration (presenting Portugal as an example of
“democracy after war”, in which the military played a determinant role in the downfall
of the dictatorship, opening a swift and important state crisis during the initial
phase of the transition)
Having served as prime minister for a very brief period (3 January-4 December 1980),
Francisco Manuel Lumbrales de Sá Carneiro (1934-1980), enrolled in politics during
the dictatorship when he accepted to join, as an independent, the lists of the regime’s
party —the National Union— in 1969 elections. Along with other young reformists (as
José Pinto Leite, Francisco Pinto Balsemão, Magalhães Mota or Miller Guerra), he gave
life to an informal group within the National Assembly known as the “Liberal Wing” About Sá Carneiro’s addresses in these domains, see, for example, Carneiro (
On 25 April 1974, the Portuguese political landscape was comprised of a handful of parties and organizations that had managed to survive the harsh conditions of the underground. In fact, only one —the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP)— had gone through the entire dictatorship (1926-1974), surviving to the harsh conditions of clandestinity and repression. The captains’ coup opened exciting opportunities, as evidenced by the first public demonstrations and the immediate return of political exiles.
It was in this context that, on 6 May 1974, Sá Carneiro and other former MPs of the “Liberal Wing” (as Magalhães Mota and Pinto Balsemão) founded the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). The announcement, two days before the foundation of the PPD, of the newly formed Social-Democratic Christian Party (PCSD, Partido Cristão Social-Democrata) rendered it impractical to choose the name Social Democratic Party, but it did not make it impossible to adopt the motto “Social Democracy for Portugal”. The Portuguese President António de Spínola, who was interested in promoting political organizations at the right of the Socialist Party (PS, Partido Socialista), was a keen supporter of this project self-portrayed as a centre-left party.
In the early days of the Revolution, the PPD did not have an easy life. The party integrated the first provisional government via Sá Carneiro (adjunct minister to the prime minister) and Magalhães Mota (minister of Home Affairs) but saw its presence in the second provisional government reduced to a single minister. In light of the criticism voiced by Sá Carneiro in the wake of the Palma Carlos-Spínola crisis, the seat was taken by Magalhães Mota (minister without portfolio). The PPD was also represented in the third, fourth and sixth provisional governments.
As a newly formed party, with no experience or tradition, its founding moment was
its first convention, held in Lisbon (23-24 November 1974), where Sá Carneiro was
confirmed as president. Following its congress, the PPD went through a phase of euphoria,
brought about by its seeming unity and mobilisation capacity. It had its own newspaper
(Povo Livre, 13 August 1974)
In the 1975 elections for the Constituent Assembly, the PPD emerged as the second strongest party (26.4 % share of vote). For health reasons, Sá Carneiro was replaced by Emídio Guerreiro at the leadership of the party (May 1975), only returning to direct political intervention months later. It was again under his superintendency that the party regained second place in the 1976 legislative elections. Despite Sá Carneiro’s original claims to be leading a left-of-centre party, PPD drifted to the right, becoming actually the country’s main centre-right force, while paradoxically being renamed as Social Democratic Party (PSD, Partido Social Democrata).
The post-revolutionary period will not be easy for PSD and especially for Sá Carneiro See Miguel Pinheiro ( Pinheiro (
Inspired by Adolfo Suárez’s Union of the Democratic Center (UCD, Unión de Centro Democrático),
this centre-right conservative political alliance earned its first victory in the
general election of late 1979, polling 45.2 % of the popular vote and securing 128
out of the 250 members of Parliament. Coming to office on 3 January 1980, leading
Portugal’s first majority government since the Carnation Revolution of 1974, Sá Carneiro
succeeded in winning the general elections held in October 1980 in which AD received
47.2 % of popular vote. This triumph seamed to augur well for the presidential election
two months later, despite the obvious advantage of Gen. Eanes’ re-candidacy over Gen.
Soares Carneiro, proposed by Sá Carneiro and sponsored by AD For more details on Eanes-Carneiro relationship see Castaño (
As noticed by San Martin, in El País, with Sá Carneiro’s death, the Portuguese presidential elections lost one of its main
protagonists, “just three days after the first round of these momentous rallies”.
San Martin’s article constituted one of the first sources of information for the Spanish
public, presenting Sá Carneiro’s life story in detail and broaching the Democratic
Alliance as his personal creation. Without him, the project’s chances of survival
are seen as low since the forces of the government coalition were deprived “of a true
leader”, and “the real binder” of the political forces using Soares Carneiro’s candidacy
as a means “to definitively institutionalize a normalization process that began five
years ago now” “La expectativa frustrada de la derecha democrática”, El País, 4-12-1980.
The debates on the Portuguese transition to democracy have a tendency to focus on
the Revolutionary Process (1974-1975) pondering on the relative importance of its
actors and agents of change. Were the military the driving force of the Revolution?
What role did political parties play? What weight did masses mobilisation have in
the Revolution? The controversy, very much alive among those that played a key role
in the events, has been with us since the first academic essays on the topic and has
led to three main historiographic tendencies launched in the 1980s by scholars like
Medeiros Ferreira, António Reis and Boaventura de Sousa Santos
From the strictest political-institutional point of view, the transition to democracy
ended in 1976. In fact, the road to democratic normalization was opened in the first
semester of 1976 with the new Constitution (April 2), the general elections (April
25) and the presidential elections (June 27). But the institutionalization of democracy
did not, in fact, mean the end of the process and a decade more will be needed to
conclude its consolidation. In this context, the hypothesis suggested by scholars
as Costa Pinto is of particular interest: considering the revolutionary period of
1974-76 as “the most complex phase” of the Portuguese transition, Pinto takes the
subsequent period (1976-1982) as part of democratic transition concluding that only
from 1982 “the democratic consolidation has proceed apace” Pinto ( Pinto (
Faced with a vision still dominant that democracy was “irreversibly conquered on April 1974” (a fact to which the role played by the media in shaping the memory of the transition is not alien), and downplays the importance of the 1976-1982 period in consolidating a true western-style democracy, the almost complete silence on the role of Sá Carneiro or of the political center in the democratizing process is not surprising.
The efforts of the PSD to commemorate the tenth anniversary (1990) of the disappearance
of its founder and historical leader were notorious. All the party’s structures engaged
actively in promoting a series of initiatives involving its main leaders and even
the Prime Minister Aníbal Cavaco Silva. It was the latter, in fact, that had the prominence
in activities such as the conference cycle “The political thought of Sá Carneiro.
Dialogue for a modern Portugal”, the inauguration of a monument to Sá Carneiro in
Oporto (by Gustavo Bastos) or the renaming of Pedras Rubras Airport (Oporto) as Francisco
Sá Carneiro’s Airport, granting them an unprecedented mediatic projection. Finally,
another initiative also stands in this context: the supplement “Remembering Sá Carneiro” Povo Livre, 31-10-1990.
The tone of the pieces published in Povo Livre was, as expected, highly laudatory, praising the deeds and qualities of the deceased
leader. However, we do not find notable differences when analysing the non-partisan
press. Large circulation newspapers, such as the Diário de Notícias, assigned several pages to the celebrations promoted by the PSD on the tenth anniversary
of Sá Carneiro’s death as well as to articles allusive to his figure and action Diário de Notícias, 4-12-1990.
“Ele merecia ter vivido esta década”, Expresso Revista, 1-12-1990.
Although less notorious, a similar commendable tone was used by Diário de Lisboa, in articles in which Sá Carneiro was presented as “the man to whom the Portuguese
Right owes the rise to power” and as a leader that, despite having died “too young”,
was able to “create loyalties, experience victories, defeats and always tried to be
equal to himself”, that is to say, to be “congruent” “Eleitos e bem amados. Sá Carneiro, a perpétua possibilidade”, Diário de Lisboa, 6-6-1990.
The pièce de résistance of that year press coverage, in which the impact of Portugal being under a PSD government
is notorious, belongs however to the historian Vasco Pulido Valente. Seeking to reconstruct
Carneiro’s political career, Pulido Valente emphasized his role as the founder of
Aliança Democrática, observing that “by setting AD, Sá Carneiro shaped the democratic
Right”. In his opinion, that political spectrum “lived self-consciously” until then,
not daring “to say its name and even less to claim the political power, without the
support and goodwill of the Left” “Sá Carneiro, os últimos anos”, Público Magazine, 11-3-1990.
Id.
This understanding of the role of Sá Carneiro in the construction of Portuguese democracy was not the only aspect that made Pulido Valente’s article relevant. In fact, never having hidden his proximity to the leader of the PSD (who he served as Undersecretary of State and Culture in the AD government, coalition which he had helped to forge), Pulido Valente elevated Sá Carneiro to the category of hero:
Only in Sá Carneiro did the classic qualities of the hero come together: the tenacity
that seemed blind and was lucid; the obscurity of the path that announced an unfathomable
plan; voluntary exile; the sudden triumph; the latent death wish; the unspeakable
end with which the gods often punish those who challenge them. Just him, beyond the
effective importance of what he did or did not do, revealed himself to us with the
dark form of the superhuman and, therefore, lived (and lives) much more in the imagination
than in reality Id.
Still in the context of the tenth anniversary of Sá Carneiro’s death, the same reference
newspaper —Público— published two large pieces by the journalist Maria João Avillez, collecting the
testimony of State figures such as Cavaco Silva, Mário Soares, Ramalho Eanes and from
politicians and public figures such as Magalhães Mota, Barbosa de Melo, José Miguel
Júdice and Pinto Balsemão “As nossas memórias de Sá Carneiro”, Publico Magazine, 2-12-1990; “De Balsemão a José Miguel Júdice. Recordações da Casa Social-Democrata”,
Publico Magazine, 2-12-1990.
Ten years later, the twentieth celebrations of Sá Carneiro death gave way to new mobilizations
lead by the PSD, which called for tributes that seeked to go beyond the party’s political
borders. Once again, the Portuguese President Mário Soares “Homenagem conta com Mário Soares e Freitas do Amaral. Sá Carneiro, património de
todos”, Público, 18-11-2000.
In comparative terms, the 2000 Sá Carneiro’s evocations are fewer in number and meaning.
Furthermore, many of the initiatives carried out in that context were overshadowed
by a controversy that monopolized the public’s attention. During the lecture conference
cycle “Opposition Nights” (organized by Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa and Leonor Beleza,
two heavyweights of the PPD leading elite), Ricardo Sá Fernandes claimed that a “complicity
silence of the justice apparatus” prevailed upon the 1980 Camarate disaster “Atentado, dizem eles”, Expresso, 8-12-2000.
Widely explored by the Portuguese press, the air crash topic had largely attracted
the attention of the Spanish press in the two previous decades. At first, the accident
thesis was dominant See, for instance, “La parada de un motor causó el accidente mortal de Sa Carneiro”,
El País, 13-12-1980. or “No hubo sabotaje en el accidente de Sa Carneiro”, La Vanguardia, 2-2-1983.
“Hubo negligencia del piloto en el accidente aéreo de Sa Carneiro “, El País, 10-4-1981.
See, for example, La Vanguardia, 2-2-1981.
The tone used is not very different from that adopted by the Portuguese press in that
context, revealing details on the new autopsies carried out as demanded by the families
of the deceased “El cadáver de Sa Carneiro sufrirá una nueva autopsia”, El País, 30-8-1982.
“Soares cree que Sa Carneiro fue víctima de un atentado”, El País, 12-11-1982.
See, for instance, N. Guardiola, “Francisco Sa Carneiro fue víctima de un bárbaro
crimen político”, El País, 24-11-1982; AFP, “El incierto asesinato de Sá Carneiro”, El País, 17-4-1995; “El fiscal general de Portugal reabre el proceso sobre la muerte de Sá
Carneiro”, El País, 28-4-1995; “El Parlamento portugués concluye que Sa Carneiro fue víctima de un atentado”,
El País, 2-6-1995; EFE, “Archivada la investigación del ‘caso Sa Carneiro’” El País, 11-11-1995.
“Las dudas sobre la muerte de Sá Carneiro causan una crisis política en Portugal”,
El País, 4-12-2000.
“Portugal sigue sin esclarecer la muerte del primer ministro Sá Carneiro 20 años
después”, El País, 4-12-2000.
Indisputably abundant, the pieces of news about Camarate accident almost always disregard
Sá Carneiro’s political role. These references emerged, however, in other articles
as the one signed in the heat of the events by Alberto Míguez, a prominent correspondent
for La Vanguardia, in the 1970s and 1980s. In a particularly emotional piece of news, in which the journalist
did not hide his proximity for the victims the plane crash, Sá Carneiro is described
as “a vehement fighter, a professional politician, but above all a statesman, with
a coherent project for Portugal”. According to Míguez, “He was a man of the Right,
an European politician representing that liberal and universal civilization that is
perhaps his most serious contribution to the history of the world” “El primer ministro conectaba con el pueblo mejor que con los políticos”, La Vanguardia, 6-12-1980.
The tone adopted by El País was quite different. Although not free from emotionality, the record presented by
this broadsheet correspondent focused on the deep crisis atmosphere experienced in
Portugal following the death of the prime minister. According to Nicole Guardiola,
“reasons for concern, disenchantment and uncertainty about the future” prevailed.
AD’s disorientation was also highlighted as, even one year after its leader’s death,
his successor (Pinto Balsemão) faced “an extremely serious internal situation in the
country” and “the thankless task of confronting a ghost”: Sá Carneiro “Sa Carneiro es homenajeado en Portugal al cumplirse el primer aniversario de su
muerte”, El País, 4-12-1981.
“Dos años después de la muerte de Sa Carneiro se sigue dudando si fue accidente o
atentado”, El País, 4-12-1982.
Id.
In fact, the fight with Sá Carneiro’s shadow was not over and gradually, the Spanish
reader was introduced to a question also raised by the Portuguese press: the legacy
of Sá Carneiro See, for instance, Sousa Tavares’ reflections on a scandal involving a social-democratic:
“A morte de Sá Carneiro”, A Capital, 1-2-1989.
“Los socialdemócratas portugueses, a la búsqueda todavía de un líder capaz de sustituir
Sa Carneiro”, El País, 22-3-1984.
Id.
The analysis of the press in the two decades that followed the death of Sá Carneiro thus leads us to two central conclusions. Firstly, that these are times of consensus, in which Sá Carneiro is little criticized and his political importance and legacy are emphasized. It is also in this context that what could be termed the construction of a myth around Sá Carneiro began within the country and abroad.
Pulido Valente was a key element in this process. However, for the media construction
of this consensual image and with hints of myth, many other interventions contributed.
As an example, see the extensive photographic report published in Expresso Revista, in December 1995, by Carlos Magno and Rui Ochôa Carlos Magno and Rui Ochôa, “Pedaços do tempo”, Expresso revista, 8-12-1995.
At the turn of the new millennium, Spanish media coverage refocuses on the Camarate
accident. The theme is retrieved by El País correspondent Javier Garcia on the 21st anniversary of Sá Carneiro’s death. At stake,
the request to reopen the judicial process presented by Sá Fernandes and his speech
in the presentation of the book O crime de Camarate (Camarate crime). At a time when others claimed the process reopening (as former president
Soares and former prime minister Cavaco Silva), Fernandes endorsed the attack theory
once again and “accused the political and judicial authorities of obstructing the
investigations”. Choosing as the preferred target the Attorney General of the Republic
Cunha Rodrigues, whom he blamed of obstructing unveiling the truth, Fernandes vindicated
that “the fear of a civil war” and the delicate moment that the Portuguese transition
was going through explained why the case had been buried for years, and “then it was
very difficult to reopen it” “Un abogado pide la reapertura del caso por la muerte de Sá Carneiro”, El País, 5-12-2001.
Three years later (2004), ABC and El País returned to the topic. The fact that the last of eight commissions of inquiry set
up to investigate the facts had ended its work, concluding that the plane crash had
been caused by sabotage, provided a story widely explored. ABC correspondent Belén
Rodriguo reveals in detail the results of the aforementioned commission of inquiry
to which she adds statements from the victims’ relatives: “We are still in time for
our children to not read a lie in the History manuals and to know that, for reasons
not fully ascertained, Sa Carneiro and Amaro da Costa were murdered” “Los análisis prueban en Portugal que Sa Carneiro murió en un atentado”, ABC, 7-12-2004.
“El enigma Sá Carneiro”, El País 13-12-2004.
The unravel of Camarate “accident” seems to have cast a blanket of disinterest on
Sá Carneiro in Spain. There was then a long silence on the subject, although occasionally
broken, as in early 2014, on the occasion of the death of Soares Carneiro “the unsuccessful
presidential candidate of Sá Carneiro”. In Soares Carneiro’s obituary, the fact that
he is remembered mainly as the “Sá Carneiro’s candidate” stands out, in addition to
the impact of the latter’s death during the campaign, drastically changing “the history
of the Portuguese Right”. In the same piece, Sá Carneiro is referred as the centrist
leader who, after his death, was transformed into the “secular saint of the Portuguese
conservators” “Obituarios. El general de la derecha. António Soares Carneiro (1928-2014). Militar
portugués”, La Vanguardia, 29-1-2014.
The progressive lack of interest in the topic is not an exclusively Spanish reality.
In fact, especially during the first decade of the millennium, allusions to Sá Carneiro
are relatively scarce and even the celebrations of the 25th anniversary of his death
do not seem to attract much attention from the press. Apart from the references to
the celebration of the traditional mass at the Basilica da Estrela “Memória de Sá Carneiro junta adversários”, Diário de Notícias, 5-12-2005.
Diário de Notícias article in the 75th anniversary of the birth of Sá Carneiro (July 2009), is an exception
to this trend. Under the title “Sá Carneiro: the country owes him pluralism and stability” “Sá Carneiro: país deve-lhe o ‘pluralismo’ e ‘estabilidade’”, Diário de Notícias, 19-7-2009.
Id.
The above views were further explored by the historian Luciano Amaral, in the article
“A history of Portuguese democracy”, published in Diário de Notícias in December 2007. According to Amaral, the thirty years that had elapsed since 25
April had made clear the inconsistencies of the Socialist Party (PS) and the harmful
effects of its action. By asserting itself as “the only legitimate interpreter of
the necessary changes”, the PS limited the PSD “to the role of a Greek chorus, in
opposition, or as a mere manager of the reality created by the PS, in power”. The
only exception to this reality, according to Amaral, had been the birth of “Sá Carneiro’s
Democratic Alliance”, as only then was the “PSD an autonomous and straightforward
engine” of a political project of “rupture with the socialist tutelage” of the regime “A história da democracia portuguesa”, Diário de Notícias, 15-2-2007.
The news slump of this first decade was however broken in 2010, in the celebrations of the 30th anniversary of Sá Carneiro’s death. References to the Mass at the Basilica da Estrela reappear. But it was, above all, the release of two books that served as a motto for the renewal of the press’ interest in PPD’s founder.
Strictly in the news area, it was up to Público to disseminate the books and, on that basis, to promote a debate on Sá Carneiro’s
profile “Sá Carneiro: Não foi a figura pacificadora em que o tentam transformar”, Público, 06-11-2010; “Sá Carneiro O primeiro retrato”, Público, 15-11-2010; “Três olhares sobre Sá Carneiro”, Público, 4-12-2010.
“Não foi a figura pacificadora em que o tentam transformar”, Público, 6-11-2010.
Id.
As highlighted by Público, leading the PSD or removed from its leadership, Sá Carneiro “has always had many enemies, has always provoked ruptures and hatred, has always had an ambiguous relationship with the party”.
It was also in the context of the 30th anniversary of Sá Carneiro’s death that the biography of Avillez, Sá Carneiro, Solidão e Poder (Sá Carneiro, solitude and power), was reprinted. Written less than a year after Camarate
crash (1981), the book was presented in the pages of Público as an unavoidable reference “for the history of PSD, of Sá Carneiro (it was one of
the key books used by Miguel Pinheiro, author of the brand new biography Sá Carneiro)
and of the political country itself, in the years between 1974 and 1980” “Sá Carneiro O primeiro retrato”, Público, 15-11-2010.
The articles published in Público have a point in common easy to identify: to challenge the image of a consensual leader.
In fact, as printed in Público, Avillez also disputed Sá Carneiro’s image by saying he “was a person who was permanently
being questioned, who at the beginning of the party was under siege”, a “difficult”
and “contradictory person” Id. Id.
Pulido Valente discusses “The invention of Sá Carneiro” and seeks to identify the
two goals of the centrist leader: “First, to bring the Right (PPD and CDS) to power
and, second, to end the military tutelage to which Portugal was subjected to”. Because,
Valente argues, “it is useless to explain that if power remained indefinitely in the
hands of the Left, which had opposed the dictatorship, […] it would not be long before
it was accepted that the PSD and CDS had no legitimacy to govern” “A invenção de Sá Carneiro”, Público, 3-12-2010.
Embracing an idea about which he had already written, Valente asserts that it was
Sá Carneiro who politically legitimized the Right and secured the democratic consolidation.
The same thesis is reaffirmed in the writings of Miguel Gaspar, Público’s deputy director, by noting that Sá Carneiro was the leader who “emancipated” the Portuguese
Right by giving it the “right to the city” in the regime arising from the 25 of April
revolution “Sá Carneiro: O homem que viveu depressa de mais”, P2, 4-12-2010.
As for Rui Ramos, a confessed admirer of Niall Ferguson, he bestows several pages
in Expresso Magazine to a virtual exercise under the title: “Sá Carneiro. What if he hadn’t died?” “Sá Carneiro: E se ele não tivesse morrido?”, Expresso Revista, 27-11-2010.
In December of that same year, other pieces about Sá Carneiro were printed. The one
signed by Tiago Mesquita —“From Sebastianism to ‘Sá Carneirismo’ through collective
hysteria”— was of particular interest, remembering how much Portugal loves to live
in “the eternal and melancholy wait” of “the perfect prince who will save us from
the darkness we are immersed in” “Do Sebastianismo ao ‘Sá Carneirismo’ passando pela histeria colectiva”, Expresso, 7-12-2010.
Id.
Pinto Balsemão, the founder of Expresso and road companion of Sá Carneiro since they sat side by side on the bench of the
National Assembly, tried to lift the veil on Sá Carneiro’s myth in an interview with
Diário de Notícias that same year: “He was a very charismatic person, almost unique. It was enough to
show up at a rally to see how the atmosphere changed immediately”. According to Balsemão,
“after Sá Carneiro, no one else was able to achieve this charisma in the PSD” “Ficava furioso com os cortes nos artigos”, Diário de Notícias, 4-12-2010.
The strongest rebuke on the “use and abuse” of Sá Carneiro’s memory would be published in that same newspaper by João Céu e Silva. Reacting against the mainstream scenario, this journalist denounces the mythologization and political use of the image of Sá Carneiro, accusing the conservative Right of intending to exhume “the political corpse” of Sá Carneiro:
The re-exhumation of Sá Carneiro’s political corpse in recent days, with the excuse
of 30 years since his death, suggests that it will again be used as an inspiration
for the PSD/CDS political area in the near future. Because the movement that the party
leaders and the President of the Republic will carry out on the political and economic
chessboard that is being played in Portugal requires a hero and a strategy that worked
in its time “Sá Carneiro: O cadáver político mais exumado”, Diário de Notícias, 4-12-2010.
In his view, with the “roar of his death”, Sá Carneiro “entered the pages of history”
but also created “a political vacuum”. His party, the PSD, “was left with a myth to
remember”, without questioning his adaptation to current times. Nonetheless, according
to Céu e Silva, as “an impetuous leader like him would no longer pass through the
sieve of public opinion as happened at that time of immaturity and harshness in Portuguese
politics” Id.
In his message on the occasion of the Camarate accident, Adolfo Suárez considered
Sá Carneiro as “one of the men who fought the most to forge a democratic and free
Portugal” “Reacções internacionais não se fizeram esperar”, A Tarde, 5-12-1980.
The analysis of the pieces of news published by the press of these two countries, in the four decades that followed Sá Carneiro’s death, led us to the following conclusions. Firstly that the junctures in which the Portuguese and Spanish press recall the figure of Sá Carneiro do not match with the commemorative moments of the 1974-1975 revolution. Likewise, little attention is paid to the constitution of the PPD, one of the founding parties of the Portuguese party system that for a decade dominated the national political scene, as well as to AD, coalition that played an important role in the democratic consolidation and probably one of Carneiro’s biggest political achievements. The idea that the democratization process closes with the end of the 1974-1975 revolution is dominant in media discourses representations of the past.
Almost invariably the memory of Sá Carneiro is only evoked by the press on the date
of his death and, occasionally, on others, such as his birthday. This reality has
multiple consequences and obvious reflexes in the way Sá Carneiro is portrayed by
the press. As one of Sá Carneiro’s biographers wrote, “the ephemeris are treacherous:
they tend to blur conflicts —instead of assuming them—, they are the ambiguous place
where everything fits and almost everyone wants to be the port of forced confluences” “De Balsemão a José Miguel Júdice. Recordações da Casa Social-Democrata”, Público Magazine, 02-12-1990.
With regard to the Portuguese press, it is possible to notice the influence of the
national political context in the invocations and image conveyed about Sá Carneiro.
When PPD is in office (AD government, 1980-1983; Central Bloc, 1983-1985; and Cavaco
Silva’s social-democratic government, 1985-1995), the number of articles on Sá Carneiro
is considerable, clearly decreasing in political contexts that are less favorable
to the party. For instance, the emphasis given by the press to the tenth anniversary
of Sá Carneiro’s death cannot be dissociated from the then ruling majority government
of Cavaco Silva. According to Rui Ramos, it is possible to find “several Sá Carneiros,
depending on the context of the commemoration” “Sá Carneiro: E se ele não tivesse morrido?”, Expresso Revista, 27-11-2010.
Regarding Spanish press, as times goes by, the decline in interest in Sá Carneiro is evident, only punctually broken by the engrossing investigations of Camarate accident, which have little to do with his political role in Portuguese democratization. It is, however, due to the Spanish press one of the most accurate analyzes of the construction of the image of Sá Carneiro, pointing out how after his death he was erected as the secular saint of the Portuguese Right.
According to the articles analysed, it is possible to distinguish two phases in the construction of the image of Sá Carneiro through the press.
In the 80’s and 90’s, in a political context favorable to the Right, Sá Carneiro emerges as an almost consensual figure, but above all as a the man who legitimized the Right and brought it to power, allowing the construction of Portuguese democracy to be completed. The almost mythical image that was conveyed by some newspapers was only overshadowed by the succession difficulties faced by the AD first, and the PPD, later. Highlighted by the Spanish correspondents, this fact is almost absent in the Portuguese press.
The new millennium opened the path to a new phase in which, despite less media attention, there is a maturing of the myth of Sá Carneiro. The image of Sá Carneiro as the leader who shaped the Portuguese Right, who brought it to power and, by breaking the leftist political monopoly, enabled the democratic consolidation gains new dimension. The writings by Pulido Valente and Rui Ramos, but also by other columnists and regular contributors to the Portuguese press, contribute to this scenario in which the debate on Sá Carneiro’s myth in not avoided. It is then that a voice not aligned with the mainstream discourse echoes, denouncing the use and abuse of the centrist leader.
The 40th anniversary of Sá Carneiro’s death took place during the pandemic crisis
of 2020. Seeking to adjust to that context, the PSD sought new political communication
strategies, which the Portuguese press followed closely. One of the most outstanding
was the initiative endorsed by Instituto Sá Carneiro which resulted in a street poster
campaign with the most “outstanding” political quotes from the party founder “Instituto Sá Carneiro recorda fundador do PSD em outdoors”, Público, 23-11-2020.
“Sá Carneiro: antes e durante (memórias pueris)”, Público, 1-12-2020.
“Sá Carneiro nunca quis satisfazer interesses privados ou eleitoralistas”, Diário de Notícias, 4-12-2020.
Founded in May 2014, this online newspaper does not hide its political right wing
orientation. Between mid-November and early December 2020, Observador published more than seven articles and opinion columns in which Sá Carneiro was the
main topic. For the articles we can mention the quote from the opinion article by
Maria João Avillez, “The inheritances” “As heranças”, O Observador, 25-11-2020.
“Marcelo lembra Sá Carneiro como ‘um dos pais civis da democracia’”, O Observador, 4-12-2020.
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